The Philosophy of India
The one of the oldest and most complex philosophies in the world, dating back thousands of years before Christ. This philosophy includes a group of schools, thinkers, and believers who think about subjects such as existence, mind, the world, the self, ethics, religion, and spirituality. The philosophy of India has been shaped by two main foundations, namely, living conditions and religious beliefs. This philosophy is divided into two major categories, the philosophy of India and the philosophy of the East.
In Indian philosophy, there are four main schools of thought, which are:
1. The Sankhya school, which examines the existence and nature of objects.
2. The Yoga school, which deals with the subject of the soul, mind, and their transformations.
3. The Vedanta school, which examines the world and its existence.
4. The Mimamsa school, which deals with knowledge and science.
In Indian philosophy, concepts such as karma, dharma, moksha, Karma, mind-body interaction, stages of the soul, chakras, etc. are examined. These concepts are very complex and sometimes difficult to understand, and to fully understand the philosophy of India, they require careful study and analysis. The Sankhya school is one of the main groups of Indian philosophy that focuses on the existence and nature of objects. This school believes that the world is composed of two fundamental elements: Purusha and Prakriti, which mean mind and matter, respectively. Purusha or mind is a non-material and infinite entity that is never influenced by Prakriti or matter and is only an observer and witness of the existence of Prakriti. Prakriti or matter is a material and infinite entity that is continuously evolving and changing. Prakriti consists of three categories or components (Tattvas): the primary elements (Mahat), the senses (Buddhi), and material objects (ahankara), which represent self-awareness and reflection towards achieving the goals of existence. The Sankhya school believes that all entities are composed of these three Prakriti categories, and for the realization of entities, Prakriti interacts with Purusha and gradually takes shape. This interaction only occurs in the initial stages and in the later stages, through Karma, reward, and punishment, it leads to the emergence of changes and transformations in Prakriti. In summary, the Sankhya school focuses on the existence and nature of objects, emphasizing two concepts of Purusha and Prakriti, and believes that the interaction between these two concepts creates changes and transformations in the world.
The Yoga school is one of the main groups of Indian philosophy that focuses on the examination of the soul, mind, and their transformations. This school believes that the soul or Atman is an infinite and unrestricted entity, shapeless and colorless, that always exists, and all humans inherit one spiritual essence. To achieve spiritual transformations, the Yoga school presents a system of yoga consisting of eight stages or steps (Ashtanga).
These steps are, in order:
1. Yama: Comprises five ethical principles necessary for self-control and spiritual elevation in life. These principles include Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-attachment).
2. Niyama: Comprises five other ethical principles necessary for personal development and spiritual growth in life. These principles include Saucha (cleanliness), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (self-study), and Ishvara Pranidhana (surrender to God).
3. Asana: Comprises physical yoga postures aimed at strengthening the body, calming the mind, and increasing concentration.
4. Pranayama: Comprises breathing exercises aimed at calming the mind and increasing concentration.
5. Pratyahara: Comprises the control of senses and the gathering of mental energy.
6. Dharana: Comprises concentration and exercises aimed at gathering mental energy.
7. Dhyana: Comprises contemplation exercises and the combination of mental energy.
8. Samadhi: The highest stage of yoga, which aims to achieve a state of unity with God or the creation of an experience of unity with all beings.
In summary, the Yoga school focuses on the study of the soul, mind, and their transformations through an eight-step system that is necessary for the physical, mental, and spiritual development of the individual. The Vedanta school is one of the main groups of Indian philosophy that delves into the study of the world and its existence. The word “Vedanta” means “unity” and it believes that the world is essentially a unified and homogeneous entity, and differences and diversities only arise due to external factors. The Vedanta school believes that the world is essentially formless and boundless, and all objects are actually a part of a larger reality. This school examines existence based on three fundamental concepts: interdependence, Maya, and Brahman. Interdependence refers to the influence of one object on another, and this school believes that all objects in the world are interconnected and there is no independent or separate entity. Maya means “covering” and refers to the effect of external factors on reality. According to this belief, external factors such as shape, color, and volume cover up reality and because what is actually real to disappear. Interdependence means the harmony and interaction between two things, and this belief holds that all objects in the world are in interaction with each other, and everything in the world is interconnected and unified. The Vedanta school examines the world and its existence from the perspective of the unity of everything and the influence of external factors on reality. Additionally, this school believes that all objects in the world are in interaction with each other, and nothing is independent and separate.
The Mimamsa school is one of the main groups in Indian philosophy that examines the reasons and foundations for accepting human beliefs and convictions. This school believes that all beliefs and convictions must be accepted based on acceptable reasoning and evidence, and the principle of everything must be provable. The Mimamsa school examines four main concepts: Pramana, prameya, pramatra, and prakrti.
Pramana means “source of knowledge” and examines methods such as direct knowledge, reasoning, empirical knowledge, and intuitive knowledge. This school believes that the only knowledge that is correct based on pramana is deductive knowledge. “Prameya” means the “object of knowledge” and deals with examining the subjects that are capable of being known, such as the interaction between objects, the world, and existence.
“Paramatman” means the “soul of the world” and deals with examining the soul and existence of humans. The belief is that all humans have inherited a single world soul, and their goal should be to achieve spiritual transformation and unity with this world soul.
“Pratyaksha” means the “limit of knowledge” and deals with examining the limits of knowledge and the possibility of knowledge. The belief is that human knowledge is limited and that only within the bounds of reasoning and logic can one have precise knowledge.
The Mimamsa school examines the reasons and foundations for accepting human beliefs and convictions and believes that all beliefs and convictions must be accepted based on acceptable reasoning and evidence. This school believes that the goal of humans should be spiritual transformation and achieving unity with the world soul. Moksha in Hindu philosophy refers to liberation and freedom from the cycle of birth and death and preventing reincarnation in material worlds. This concept is considered the ultimate goal in many Hindu philosophical and religious groups, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. According to this belief, the cycle of birth and death in the material worlds occurs based on the law of karma, meaning the action and its consequences. For example, good deeds in one life lead to a better life in the future, while bad deeds lead to undesirable results. Therefore, achieving Moksha, meaning attaining freedom from the cycle of birth and death and preventing reincarnation in material worlds, is considered the main goal of spiritual and religious efforts in Hindu philosophy. To achieve this goal, many Hindu philosophical and religious groups, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, employ various methods such as yoga, meditation, puja, and karma yoga. These methods help to attain detachment and liberation from all material manifestations of the world, which hinder the attainment of Moksha.
Karma is one of the important concepts in Hindu philosophy that refers to human action and conduct. This concept is considered one of the main principles in Hinduism and Jainism and means “action,” “activity,” and “work.” According to this belief, Karma is defined and recognized as a set of human actions and behaviors based on religious and ethical references. For example, in Hinduism, Karma is defined and recognized based on religious and ethical references such as wealth, love, truth, and justice, and it helps in various ways to attain clarity and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. In Hindu philosophy, Karma is emphasized as one of the main ethical and spiritual principles, emphasizing that one should observe and act upon ethical and religious principles in their actions. According to this belief, performing Karma helps to better understand the world, improve living conditions, and attain clarity of mind and spirit. Furthermore, performing Karma correctly and in accordance with ethical and religious references helps in achieving Moksha, which is considered the main goal in Hindu philosophy, meaning freedom from the cycle of birth and death and preventing reincarnation in material worlds. Karma in Hindu philosophy means action and its consequences. According to the beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, Karma is one of the fundamental concepts that have an impact on the cycle of birth and death in material worlds and the spiritual evolution of human beings.
For example, in Hinduism, Karma is the action that we perform, and we must accept its consequences. According to the beliefs of Hinduism, all the actions we perform in one life have an impact on our future lives. In other words, everything we do releases our energy into the world, and this energy will come back to us in the future. Buddhism and Jainism also believe that Karma has an impact on our lives. In Buddhism, Karma is recognized as one of the factors that cause the cycle of birth and death in the material world. According to this belief, performing our actions in accordance with religious and ethical references helps in attaining liberation from the cycle of birth and death. In Jainism, Karma is recognized as one of the factors that cause the spiritual evolution of human beings. According to this belief, performing our actions in accordance with religious and ethical references helps in attaining clarity of mind and spirit, and plays an important role in spiritual progress and attaining a better state for living in material worlds. In Hindu philosophy, Karma is recognized as one of the fundamental concepts in the cycle of birth and death and the spiritual evolution of human beings. The belief is that every action we perform has an impact on our future lives, and performing our actions in accordance with ethical and religious references helps in attaining clarity of mind and spirit and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Dharma, on the other hand, is one of the central concepts in Hindu philosophy, meaning the natural law or order of the universe. This concept is used in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism and is recognized as one of the fundamental principles in the process of spiritual evolution of human beings.
For example, in Hinduism, Dharma is emphasized as one of the five primary social and ethical principles, emphasizing that one should follow the natural law and have a good relationship with it. The belief is that everything in the world is under the command of Dharma, and we should strive for balance and harmony with this world order by observing ethical and religious references. In Buddhism, Dharma is recognized as one of the factors that cause the cycle of birth and death in the material world. According to this belief, performing our actions in accordance with religious and ethical references helps in attaining liberation from the cycle of birth and death. In summary, both Karma and Dharma are fundamental concepts in Hindu philosophy, and they play an important role in the spiritual evolution of human beings. While Karma emphasizes the importance of performing actions in accordance with ethical and religious references, Dharma emphasizes the importance of following the natural law and order of the universe. In Jainism, Dharma is recognized as one of the fundamental principles in the worldview and spiritual evolution of human beings. According to this belief, performing our actions in accordance with ethical and religious references helps in attaining clarity of mind and spirit and plays an important role in spiritual progress and attaining a better state for living in material worlds. In Hindu philosophy, Dharma is recognized as one of the fundamental concepts in the process of spiritual evolution of human beings and following the natural law and order of the universe. The belief is that we should strive for balance and harmony with this world order by observing ethical and religious references and performing our actions in accordance with them to attain clarity of mind and spirit, liberation from the cycle of birth and death, and improve our conditions for living in material worlds. The interaction between the mind and body in Hindu philosophy refers to the influence of these two different aspects of human existence on each other. According to the beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, the mind and body are two different aspects of human existence that interact with each other and have an impact on each other.
In summary, while there may be some differences in the specific interpretations of Dharma and the interaction between the mind and body in Hindu philosophy and Jainism, they are both fundamental concepts in the spiritual evolution of human beings and emphasize the importance of ethical and religious references in guiding our actions and achieving clarity of mind and spirit. The interaction between the mind and body is considered as one of the fundamental concepts in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism for achieving clarity of mind and spirit and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. The belief is that the mind and body are two different aspects of human existence that interact with each other and have an impact on each other. Striving for balance and harmony between these two aspects is essential for achieving clarity of mind and spirit.
In Buddhism, practices such as meditation and Ayurveda are recommended as ways to strengthen the interaction between the mind and body and achieve balance and harmony between them. Similarly, in Jainism, the interaction between the mind and body is considered as one of the fundamental concepts in achieving clarity of mind and spirit and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Striving for balance and harmony between these two aspects is essential for achieving clarity of mind and spirit. In summary, the interaction between the mind and body is a fundamental concept in Eastern philosophy, and it emphasizes the importance of achieving balance and harmony between these two aspects for achieving spiritual progress and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. In Hindu philosophy, the interaction between the mind and body is considered as one of the fundamental concepts in the interaction of the two different aspects of human existence for achieving clarity of mind and spirit and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. To strengthen the interaction between the mind and body and achieve balance and harmony between them, practices such as meditation, Ayurveda, and physical exercises are recommended. In Hindu philosophy, the soul is recognized as the eternal and spiritual aspect of human existence that separates from the body and, after death, seeks to experience its past in subsequent lives by being reborn in another body. According to the beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, the soul goes through various stages during the cycle of birth and death, which are referred to as the stages of the soul in each of these philosophies:
In Hinduism, the soul is recognized as the eternal and spiritual aspect of human existence that separates from the body and, after death, seeks to experience its past in subsequent lives by being reborn in another body. These subsequent lives are known as “samsara” and during this cycle, the soul goes through different stages. According to Hinduism, the soul goes through various stages during the cycle of birth and death, which are in order:
1.1) Life in the physical world.
1.2) Life in the realm of beings, where it is categorized into different levels based on its actions in the previous life, such as high, medium, and low.
1.3) Life in the realm of desires and pleasures.
1.4) Life in the realm of material and ephemeral desires.
1.5) Life in the pure realm, where the soul has transcended its life in the material and ephemeral world.
2. Buddhism: In Buddhism, the concept of a soul as a fundamental entity does not exist, and emphasis is placed on the impermanence and instability of material existence in the world. According to Buddhism, the cycle of birth and death among humans is resolved by attaining a powerful force (Buddhist force) that enables liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Instead of the stages of the soul, Buddhism uses the concept of “awareness” (awareness) which means awareness of the realities of the material and spiritual world.
3. Jainism: In Jainism, the soul is recognized as an infinite and eternal being. According to Jain beliefs, the soul goes through different stages during the cycle of birth and death, and is classified into various categories based on its actions in the previous life. These categories include classifications such as returning to the second world, wandering in the material and ephemeral world, and reaching the ultimate power.
In Indian philosophy, the soul is recognized as the spiritual and eternal aspect of human beings that goes through different stages during the cycle of birth and death, which are described differently in each of the philosophies of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Chakravala method or the cyclic method is an ancient method for solving Diophantine equations with two variables, which was used in Hindu mathematics. This method was introduced by mathematician Matiyaseva Brahamachari in the 12th century. Based on the philosophical beliefs of Hinduism, everything in the world is constantly changing and flowing, and nothing is fixed and stable. This concept is also used in mathematics, and the Chakravala method is used to solve Diophantine equations with two variables. In this method, by repeating four different stages, the equation is transformed into a simpler form until we reach the solution. The stages of Chakravala include changing variables, transformation, applying operators, and returning to the first stage. This method is very effective for solving Diophantine equations with two variables and is widely used in mathematical research in India. Overall, Hindu philosophy, as one of the many branches of the history of philosophy, includes many complex concepts and beliefs that have developed over centuries. This philosophy is based on the beliefs and thoughts of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and has had a significant impact on the culture and civilization of India.
In Hindu philosophy, existence is divided into two forms: material and spiritual. According to the beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, existence is perceived as an eternal and infinite concept that goes through various stages during the cycle of birth and death. In Hinduism, existence includes two important elements: Brahman and Atman. Brahman is considered as the highest existence and foundation of everything, as the fundamental concept of existence. Brahman is present in everything, and everything that exists arises from it. Atman, on the other hand, is considered the spiritual aspect of human beings and is seen as a part of Brahman. In the beliefs of Hinduism, the main goal of life is to gain knowledge of the realities of Brahman and to be liberated from the cycle of birth and death. In Buddhism, existence is perceived as a meaningless and void concept. In Buddhism, everything in the world is constantly changing and flowing, and nothing is fixed and stable. This concept of the impermanence and instability of material existence is also used in mathematics. For this reason, the Chakravala method is used to solve Diophantine equations with two variables. In this method, by repeating four different stages, the equation is transformed into a simpler form. In Jainism, existence is recognized as an infinite and eternal concept. According to Jainism, existence includes both material and spiritual aspects and goes through various stages during the cycle of birth and death. The primary goal of life in Jainism is to attain ultimate liberation (moksha), which leads to freedom from the cycle of birth and death. In Indian philosophy, existence is perceived as a profound and complex concept, which is explained in various ways in the beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. In Indian philosophy, stability and change in the world are seen as two fundamental and opposing concepts. According to the beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, nothing in the world is stable and fixed, and everything is constantly changing and flowing. This change and flow in the world, according to the beliefs of Hinduism, is due to the existence of Brahman as the foundation of everything.
For example, in Hinduism, life is constantly changing and flowing based on the cycle of birth and death. It is believed that after death, every human being joins another cycle of birth and death. This change and flow in the world, according to the beliefs of Hinduism, is necessary for achieving goals such as the knowledge of the realities of Brahman and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. However, in Indian philosophy, eternal existence is also recognized as an important concept. According to the beliefs of Hinduism, Brahman is perceived as the highest existence and the foundation of everything, as the fundamental concept of existence. Brahman is present in everything, and everything that exists arises from it. In Buddhism, change and flow in the world are seen as a fundamental concept. According to Buddhist beliefs, everything in the world is constantly changing and flowing, and nothing is stable and permanent. This concept, as the instability and impermanence of material existences, is also used in mathematics. In Jainism, change and flow in the world are also recognized as an important concept. For example, in Jainism, life is constantly changing and flowing based on the cycle of birth and death. It is believed that through practices such as liberation from greed, anger, and cruelty, one can be freed from this cycle of birth and death and attain ultimate liberation. In Indian philosophy, stability and change are perceived as opposing concepts. The beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism try to justify the change and flow in the world due to the cycle of birth and death and aim to achieve goals such as the knowledge of the realities of Brahman and liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
In Indian philosophy, nature is recognized as a fundamental concept. According to the beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, nature is considered as a part of “Brahman” as the highest existence and the foundation of everything. In these beliefs, nature is perceived as an eternal and infinite being that goes through different stages over time. In Hinduism, nature is seen as a part of Brahman, and everything in nature is connected to Brahman. From the perspective of Hinduism, nature is important as a living environment for humans and other beings, and should be treated with respect and protection. In Buddhism, nature is perceived as a meaningless and empty concept. According to Buddhist beliefs, everything in the world is constantly changing and flowing, and nothing is stable and permanent. In these beliefs, the ultimate goal of life is to attain ultimate liberation (moksha) which results in freedom from the cycle of birth and death. In Jainism, nature is perceived as an eternal and infinite being that goes through different stages over time. The main goal of life in Jainism is to attain the ultimate liberation (moksha) which results in freedom from the cycle of birth and death. For example, it is believed that through practices such as freeing oneself from greed, anger, and mercilessness, one can be free from the cycle of birth and death and attain the ultimate liberation. In Indian philosophy, nature is considered as a fundamental and basic concept that is related to Brahman in all beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The ultimate goal of life in these beliefs is to attain the ultimate liberation which results in freedom from the cycle of birth and death. Therefore, respect and protection of nature are very important in Indian philosophy.
Hinduism philosophy is one of the most important philosophical traditions in Indian culture that is based on the Hinduism religion. This philosophy is based on the belief in the existence of a fundamental principle called “Brahman”. Brahman is perceived as the highest existence, the foundation of everything, and the source of existence. Beliefs in Hinduism are based on the concept of striving for awareness and knowledge of reality. Hinduism is divided into two important branches: the branch of action (Karma) and the branch of knowledge (Jnana).
In the branch of action, the effort to attain awareness of reality is emphasized through proper action and behavior. In the branch of knowledge, the effort to attain awareness of reality is emphasized through knowledge, logic, and philosophy. In Hindu philosophy, nature is considered as a part of Brahman and everything in nature is related to Brahman. According to Hinduism, nature is important as a living environment for humans and other beings and should be treated with respect and protection. Hinduism is divided into two main branches: the branch of Veda and the branch of Naya. In the branch of Veda, the emphasis is more on the knowledge of reality through the sacred texts of Veda. In the branch of Naya, the emphasis is more on the knowledge of reality through logic, philosophy, and other means. In Hindu philosophy, the belief in the cycle of birth and death is an important part of beliefs. Additionally, the belief in the existence of multiple gods in Hinduism exists, each having their own duties and tasks. Hindu philosophy believes in the existence of a fundamental principle called Brahman and strives for the realization of reality and knowledge through correct behavior, knowledge, logic, and philosophy. Hinduism believes in the cycle of birth and death and the existence of multiple gods, and is divided into two main branches: Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Buddhism, as one of the most significant philosophical traditions in the world, has followers not only in Southeast Asia but also around the world. In Chinese philosophy, Buddhism is recognized as one of the five important traditions that coexist with classical Chinese philosophy (Confucianism and Taoism). Buddhism has developed based on assumptions about the existence and nature. These assumptions are based on four basic needs (food, illness, death, and old age), which Buddha, as the central figure of Buddhism, recommended for knowing and joining the absolute freedom.
As a philosophy, Buddhism seeks to promote awareness and knowledge of reality. In this philosophy, there are two important stages for achieving awareness and knowledge of reality: first, the realization and perception of reality, and second, freedom from it. As one of the characteristics of Buddhism, it employs a form of meditation to alleviate pain and anxiety, and to increase awareness and knowledge. This method is known as a way to control the mind, improve mood and spirit, and eliminate anger and tension. In Buddhism, there is also a belief in the cycle of birth and death, which can be escaped by attaining ultimate power (Moksha). This belief, as one of the important characteristics of Buddhism and Chinese philosophy, plays a significant role in the lives of people and society. Buddhism is recognized as one of the five important traditions in Chinese philosophy. This philosophy is based on the pursuit of awareness and knowledge of reality and freedom from it. Belief in the cycle of birth and death, as well as the recommendation of meditation and mastery over the mind, are recognized as fundamental characteristics of Buddhism. Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism and one of the greatest figures in history. He was born in 563 BC in the city of Lumbini in Nepal. His parents were of the Shakya dynasty, who were one of the great rulers in the region. He grew up as a proud and noble prince during his father’s reign. After marriage and during his life as a prince, Buddha was in search of a way to answer the deep questions of life. Eventually, he decided to abandon his life as a prince and pursue a way to attain greater peace and awareness. After years of searching and effort, he finally achieved self-gratification and unconditional love, and became a Buddha (meaning “awakened” or “enlightened”).
Buddha organized his thoughts based on four basic needs (food, illness, death, and old age) and turned them into four basic needs (or four causes of happiness). He believed that the path to achieving clarity of mind and awareness of reality was through self-criticism and criticism of others, and the attainment of self-gratification and unconditional love. Buddha, as one of the greatest figures in history, has had significant impacts on the history and philosophy of the world. Buddhism, which is based on his teachings and doctrines, is still followed by millions of people around the world.
Indian philosophy is one of the oldest and most historically-rich philosophical traditions in the world, with deep roots in the ideas of great philosophers. Below, I will list some of the greatest philosophers of India:
1. Adi Shankara: a philosopher, scientist, and prominent disciple of Brahman, who lived in the 7th century AD.
2. Ramanujacharya: a great Hindu philosopher and scientist who lived in the 7th century AD.
3. Jaimini: A Hindu philosopher and scientist who lived in the 4th century BC and is known as the founder of a branch of Hindu philosophy called “Mimamsa.”
4. Vyasa: a man who is known as the author of the most important Hindu texts, including the Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita. He lived in the 4th century BC.
5. Buddha: the founder of Buddhism and one of the greatest figures in history, who was born in 563 BC in the city of Lumbini in Nepal.
6. Mahavira: the founder of Jainism, who was born in 599 BC in a southern region of India.
7. Gaudapada: a 5th century AD Indian philosopher who is known as the founder of a branch of Hindu philosophy called Advaita Vedanta, after writing a book called Karika.
8. Patanjali: a Hindu philosopher and scientist who lived in the 2nd or 3rd century AD and is known as the founder of a branch of Hindu philosophy called “Yoga”.
This list is only a few examples of the greatest philosophers of India, and there are still many other important names in Indian philosophy and culture. One advantage of India is that, unlike countries such as China and Iran, fortunately, there has not been book burning by rulers or occupiers, and most ancient books still exist. However, unfortunately, due to natural factors, many ancient books have also been lost and nothing remains of them today.